Grammar

Linking words

Linking words are used to connect two or more ideas. There are a number of different forms of linking words and they follow different grammatical rules. We are going to take a look at several types in this lesson.

Showing cause and effect

These words are used to show how one event has led to a given result:

Because

Since

Because of

Due to

Therefore

Consequently

As a result


We use because and since to express the reason for an event happening. After because and since we must use a verb clause (subject + verb). Since is normally used at the beginning of a sentence.

I went to the opera last night because my favorite singer was performing.

Since we can't go out tonight, we should make a nice dinner at home tonight.

Because of and due to are also used to give reason, but are followed by a noun clause (noun, pronoun, gerund). Due to is more formal.

Our flowers have died because of a lack of water.

Due to legal proceedings, we are not permitted to sell our properties.

Therefore, as a result, and consequently are used to show the result of an action. These often express a similar meaning as So, but are more formal. Consequently is normally used as the beginning of a new sentence. Thereforeand as a result can be used with one or two sentences.

He had studied very hard and therefore did quite well on his test.

As a result of our division's strong performance, we will offer a larger bonus this year.

You didn't inform me of the changes. Consequently I completely missed my appointment today.

Resisting conditionality and showing contrast

We use these words to show that a second fact is strange or surprising after considering the first fact:

Despite

In spite of

Despite the fact that

Although

Even though

However


After despite and in spite of we use a noun clause (noun, pronoun, or gerund):

Despite being ill, Anne still attended every class.

We enjoyed our game in spite of the rain.

After although and despite the fact that we use a verb clause (subject + verb):

Despite the fact that she was ill, Anne still attended every class.

We enjoyed our game although it rained all day.

Even though is used as a stronger form of although:

The runner managed to complete the race even though he sprained his ankle.

However is also used to resist conditionality, often similar to but. However we need to create two sentences and usehowever at the beginning of the second sentence:

My candidate was leading in the opinion polls. However he didn't win the election.

Notice that if we begin a sentence with our linking word we need a comma between these clauses, but if we insert our conjunction in the middle there is no need for a comma.

Showing contrast

We use these words to contrast two pieces or information:

In contrast to

On the contrary


In contrast to can be used at the beginning of a sentence or in the middle, followed by noun clause.

His grades this semester are excellent in contrast to last semester.

In contrast to your previous job, you might find this one quite interesting.

When we use on the contrary it must be used at the beginning of a new sentence. It is followed by verb clause.

No, I don't agree that the train is faster. On the contrary, I believe that the bus is a quicker means of transportation.

Expanding upon or refining an argument

We use these words to add an extra piece of information to support the first piece:

In addition to

As well as

In addition

Moreover

Furthermore


When we use as well as and in addition to we often use one sentence. These words are similar to and, but are more formal and can be used at the beginning of a sentence.

You need to look for a job as well as writing your CV.

In addition to being an accountant, I've also written several books on insects.

In addition, moreover and furthermore are used when we want to add another piece of information in a second sentence. It would be grammatically wrong to use and or also in these sentences.

We have a lovely cottage in the mountains. In addition, we have a summer home at the lake.

You should visit your grandma. Moreover, you ought to do the cleaning for her.

He always arrives on time. Furthermore, he does a wonderful job while he's working.